Example of a literature review map. I have always been a visual learner, having long engaged with diagrams, images, illustrations to help me think, enquire, describe and learn. So it will come as no surprise that I was attracted to Creswell's idea of creating a literature review map (see example on left). Keeping track of mountains of information is always a struggle. Software like RefWorks is great at organizing literature into specific topic areas, and making the task of referencing as simple as a touch of a few buttons. What it lacks is an all encompassing way of seeing how relevant the literature is to the topic in question. Certainly, a system of ratings or colour codes can help organize publications into a relevant hierarchy, but then it still takes a lot of scrolling or sifting to see what is of most relevance. The benefit of the literature map is the ease with which the material that is most closely related to the research topic is clearly visible. This approach is free from the constraints imposed by reference management software, there is no need to alphabetize, there is no need to open up one document at a time. By organizing literature in this visual map, it seems to me, that it is easier to keep in mind relevant publications, and it will also help identify subtopics of interest. In relation to my own research, I can see myself filling an entire wall with such a map. As much as there is research about photography, photographers and death, they can be found in such a wide variety of areas: humanities, social sciences, health sciences, grey literature, peer-reviewed, and, of course, combining a mix of visual and textual sources. For the purposes of the pilot study for this course, I am going to look at photographers' experiences photographing death and dying. Because this aspect of life is a basic human fact (albeit with a enormous cultural and historic variation in its actual expression), and because contemporary experiences on non-violent death is not a very widely researched topic in the area of photography, I will have to look far and wide. The fact that I want to explore visual representations of non-violent dying and death complicates my ability to find relevant publications. Much has been written about atrocity images or human rights photography or conflict photojournalism - all of which often include images of suffering and deceased individuals as a result of violence be it at the hands of humans or nature. But not much exists in the way of critical reflections on visual representations of dying by more natural means. Research into images of non-violent death that I have been able to locate include the way in which loved ones 'left behind' use images of decedents for mourning and memorial purposes. Jay Ruby's ethnographic work on the historical and current use of pictures of the dead is a groundbreaking work in that it brings a comprehensive look at visuals and death out of the shadows of history and into a present that is full-colour and technological. Another contemporary scholar is Emily West whose work on 21st century visual representations of non-violent death is broadening and extending some of the directions that Ruby's work alluded to but were not part of the scope of his work. She looks at relatively recent documentaries focusing on medicalized end of life in north america. Though much of her work is still 'forthcoming', I have been fortunate enough to have had contact with her following a conference presentation, and am keeping a close eye on her outputs. What I find lacking in these works is a look at dying from a more global perspective. Then there is literature on end of life from a health sciences perspective. To be honest, the bioethics debates about aid in dying / assisted dying / euthanasia (pick your term) has fascinated me. So too has the recent attention to increased access to palliative care. But, and this is at the root of my interests, it is when thinking of disparities between the violent/suffering deaths portrayed as the norm in low and middle income countries (LMIC) compared to the debates around highly medicalized, highly controlled deaths in high income countries, that my social justice nerve began to twig. If death is a natural part of life, no matter where we are in the world or the socio-economic ladder (to put it plainly), then dying with dignity (however you want to express dignity) is a should be available to all. How this related to images of death and dying, I am still trying to articulate... But, I digress, this is getting to be too much like a lit review....I think you get the point that I will be pulling material into my map from various disciplines and under various topics. I can see I will need to get a very large dry-erase board, and a lot of fine tipped markers for this.
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Metaphors and similes are often used to try to describe a lived experience to someone outside of those experiences. Getting new job can be like scaling a mountain (or corporate ladder, as the hierarchy may be). The pain of childbirth is said to be worse that loosing a limb. As for education, marathons and roller coasters are often used to describe the intensity of work and emotional expenditure of the experience. Entering my 3rd week of school, after a hiatus of more than 8 years, I am wondering, "Is this roller coaster safe?"
Of course it's safe in the sense that I'm not actually strapped into a cart, hanging upside down. But education at this level is very demanding of time and emotional investments, so it is bound to have its ups and downs like a roller coaster. I am tremendously excited to be studying again. I have really felt over the past several years my drive to contribute more fully to the work I have been involved in, and I have sorely wanted to contribute more. Intellectually, analytically, I know I have the capabilities. It is really the philosophical and theoretical foundations that I felt I lacked to be able to make confident and comprehensive contributions. And to test my knowledge of them and be puched to really think rather than regurgitate is what this type of education should provide. We had a first class last week with the lovely Carole Farber. It was a wonderful opportunity for meeting the students in the class, and Carole. My impressions of the time we spent together were very positive. The space quickly became one of relaxed comfort and safe, but serious, discussion. The group, through Carole's honest and unassuming lead, were encouraged to be open about their goals and gaps of education. It was refreshing to see everyone accepting and engaging in the opportunity. Something I have learned in my years of working in applied ethics, particularly while engulfed in the art of interviewing participants, is the necessity of building trust and the creation of a safe space. Trust that the people engaged in the conversation are being honest with each other and themselves is an enormous part in making a safe space. The sense of a safe space (and I mean sense in that, though it can be created in a room, a safe space really isn't a physical location) is also built on respect for individual expression and non-judgement. Fortunately, this is what I felt coming out of our first Methods class last week. That is a very good impression to come away with, particularly given the intensity of PhD education. And intense it is. I knew coming in that this was going to be a lot of work. And in the past 2 weeks I have already been exposed to the roller coaster and marathon that have come to routinely describe this level of education. Being exposed to new ideas (and old ones in a new light), have helped me understand with more clarity where my beliefs germinated. But it's the rubbing of these ideas, old and new, with what I thought I knew - the negotiation of its meaning and impact on my worldview (to use Creswell's term) is where the roller coater metaphor is most apt. I look forward to seeing where the ride will take me. One benefit to having a long commute is that I have the luxury of listening to uninterrupted radio for a good stretch of time. The other day on my drive to campus, I listened to a sweet little documentary about a university called Quest (not to be confused with the Tribe Called Quest) in British Columbia. As I have recently become a student again, the program interested me on a number of levels. Aside from the focus on the university's interdisciplinary and small group learning style philosophy, I was actually more interested - or inspired may be the better term - in the way the students were all able to easily state in one line their research interests.
Since writing my statement of interest for my grad school applications, I have been struggling to find a simple one-liner about my goals. Partly that's because I am still learning about all that is out there related to my interests, and partly because each time I think I have the right words put together, I either find another term/concept that better matches my interests or I find nuanced understandings of the terms I have been using that now make me call into question my choice of language. But let's save deconstructing this for a later post (or posts as I get more immersed in my education). One reason for having a simple statement is that it makes it easier to tell the people at the pub what I'm doing without boring or confusing them too much. But it's also the process of getting to a simple statement that is beneficial. As simple as the statement may be, it is based on much background work; epistemological work that is necessary for rigorous research. Along with creating a course blog (or blogging about the course), we have been given the seemingly simple task of to providing a title for a pilot project that we will work from for the duration of the course. Although a title can't always encapsulate everything that the research project is about. It may not be exactly the one-liner I'll tell the folks on the street, but it should at least get the attention of those for whom the research will be of interest. A title should say enough about the research problem, the design, and the theoretical perspective as possible to engage the target audience. As far as my 'research problem' is concerned, I want to explore the experience of photography of non-violent dying and death in low- and high-income countries in the realm of humanitarian (or maybe more specifically humanitarian healthcare) practice; I want to explore if imagination, through the experience of photography can be a vehicle for empathy. This is definitely not a single-line research problem statement. And as for a pilot study, this is far too broad. The first part of the problem statement is still quite broad for an initial study. Narrowing it down to a researchable question can be done a variety of ways, I'm doing it here through the act of exploring research design. Worldview John W. Creswell's book on Research Design greatly simplified the process of clarifying my research problem. In a nutshell, I can say for this pilot study I will conduct qualitative research that espouses an advocacy/participatory worldview, employing qualitative strategies and methods. Experiences and practices of photographing end-of-life is not a topic that has garnered much academic (or other) attention. It is not a testable in the quantitative sense, there are no theories to prove, or cause and effect relations to test. Depending on the intent of the outcome of the research, my topic could employ a constructivist worldview: it is theory generating, inductive, and incorporates multiple negotiated meanings from various participants (p.8-9). My intent, however, is that the results of this research will contribute to social change. Ultimately, through a more respectful, responsive and ethical photography, empathy can replace stereotypes and humanitarian action can become less political. With that intent in mind - an intent that is political and change-oriented - my worldview starts looking more like Advocacy/Participatory (A/P). When I include the awareness that this research is dependent on my being able to gain knowledge through the participation of photojournalists, humanitarian professionals, spectators, and those included in (or alongside) the images, I fall squarely in that worldview. It is not that I consider any of the 4 worldview presented by Creswell as being inherently better or worse, in fact, I think I have quite a pragmatic worldview, but by (and this is a sign of my pragmatist leanings) letting my research topic determine the most suitable research design, A/P still is the most applicable. Even though I feel confident in this worldview, there are appealing elements of the pragmatist view. I do agree that approaches can be dictated by the research question. For instance questionnaires may be the best way to get answers, depending on the topic or the size of the sample population. I have been a part of mixed method research where closed-answer surveys were used to narrow a very broad topic in order to generate themes that were more easy to explore and discuss in interviews. I am also curious about Creswell's statement that for pragmatists "truth is what works at the time" (p.11) . This is likely connected to their postmodern lens, and their underlying belief of external and internal worlds (plural meanings/truths). That they don't want to keep questioning the proof of inner and outer worlds is a sign of how much they believe in this 'truth'. But perhaps this is better left for when we're visiting our theoretical perspectives....(I wonder: Will exploration of theoretical perspectives lead to my possibly changing worldview? How porous are these borders?) Strategy Coming from an anthropological background, I've always viewed ethnography as the ultimate qualitative approach. It is holistic, incorporating multiple interrelated elements and influences in its field of view, and includes the luxury of research over a long timeframe which allows for nuances and richness (or thickness à la Clifford Geertz) to surface. I still find this type of research most appealing, though I have yet to employ it. It is, however, often impractical given time constraints (political/institutional pressures) and funding structures. In my experiences I have been fortunate to have employed grounded theory, case study, and narrative strategies. I have not been involved in phenomenological research, though determining whether it was relevant to the research topics I have worked with has come up several times. In the event that I focus more on the role of imagination and empathy development through the experience of photography, then phenomenology may be a better strategy, but that's for future exploration. For this pilot study, in which I want to explore practices and experiences, phenomenology is not ideal. Case study might work if in the end I find an excellent exemplary case of a series of photographs by one photographer of a single individual (of family) that would encompass all that is relevant in my study, but at the moment I do not have that in mind. I am not ruling it out, it is simply that at this point I feel I'll be talking with a relatively large number of people about likely only one experience of relevance (hopefully they have not had too many events of non-violent death being photographed). Grounded theory and narrative research are the types I have most recently been involved in, again with a degree of overlap/porousness, or method slurring. Instead of providing us with generalities, participants I have interviewed over the years have shared with us their personal stories. Over the course of an hour or two or more, these individuals generously and honestly narrated cancer genetic testing experiences, personal expectations as research participants on autism genetic research, decision-making processes about internal defibrillators and end-of-life, and ethical dilemmas faced while providing humanitarian or military healthcare in crisis or extreme poverty situations. These stories became the foundation of the research project, informing subsequent areas of exploration (e.g., talking with tangentially related individuals, documentary analysis, theoretical exploration, etc.),and sometimes changing the direction of the research goals. Because the narratives were analyzed in concert with other relevant and complementary information, a grounded theory strategy was used to constantly compare data, test and explore theories and develop concepts relevant to the topic (p. 13). I'm not sure what this says about the academic rigour of the research I was involved in, but it always resulted in positive outcomes (publications) and fruitful findings (e.g., leading to changes in practice, further research). Methods With an Advocacy/Participatory qualitative worldview, and a narrative and/or grounded theory strategy, the methods that I'll be employing are likely to begin with document (text and visual), and audio-visual data (internet videos) data collection and analysis. Following that, I'll have a good sense of who (or which organizations) I'd like to approach for interviews using a set of open-ended questions. Depending on the responses from those interviews, more document analysis, interviews with other relevant parties/individuals may be required. Where and when possible, I'd also like to partake in observational data collection to add further nuance and test the validity of participants' narratives. Sometimes people talk in idealistic terms, or simply forget that in certain instances their values are tested/downplayed. It is in these instances that often the very important knowledge can be gleaned. Conclusion: Title So after all that reflection, all the 'what ifs' and 'oh, that's thought provoking', I have a relatively solid research design. The interplay of narratives and grounded theory, the potential for porousness between the two strategies, is something I would like to further explore. Ultimately, however, the process of defining a research design has made the task of generating a title more epistemologically comprehensive. To conclude here is my (tentative) working title (after a discussion of the qualitative strategies, the title may be tweaked): The End: Narratives of experience at the intersection of photojournalism, humanitarianism, and non-violent end of life. It may still not be something my friends will understand, but it's closer to the radio soundbites from the Quest students. If you really press me for a one-liner instead of title, then I'm going to pilfer somewhat from one of those students' lines and say my research is about: How visual communication can lead to social change. References: Creswell, John (2008) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage Publications Inc. 3rd Edition. Geertz, Clifford (1973) Thick Description: Towards an Interpretive Theory of Culture. IN The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York: Basic Books, pp. 3-30. Holloway, Immy and Les Todres. (2003). The Status of Method: Flexibility, Consistency and Coherence. Qualitative Research 2003 3: 345 Journaling while conducting research is a vital part of the process. It is a great source for documenting preconceptions and trajectories of thought along the course of the research, and it also has an impact, through critical reflection, on research design. As part of our course requirements for MS-9101, in the Media Studies PhD program in the Faculty of Information and Media Studies (FIMS) at Western University, each student is to maintain a course blog. Coincidentally, I had been working on beginning a blog of my own specifically for my forays into personally-directed research, a few weeks prior to beginning classes.
While journaling and blogging can be interchangeable for some, to me they are fundamentally different in that the former is private, while the latter is public and open to commentary (in one form or another). This blog, though I anticipating it containing many of my reflections on intellectual growth, will be a public place for me to share my thoughts as they develop and change, and where people can contribute to my engagement with my education and research. Our assignment for this week was not to explore the value of blogging, or even our rationale for having one (in this case it would appear to primarily meet our course objectives), but rather to explore research design for a pilot study of our choice. You can find out more information on myself and the title of this blog by visiting my research website. Some sources on being reflective and reflexive: Bolton, Gillie (2005) "Reflection and Reflexivity: What and Why." IN Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development by Gillie Bolton, Second Edition. London: Sage Publications. Ortlipp, Michelle (2008) "Keeping and Using Reflective Journals in the Qualitative Research Process." The Qualitative Report. 13(4) December. Pp. 695-705. Ryan, Thomas (2005) When you reflect, are you also being reflexive?. http://oar.nipissingu.ca/PDFS/V812E.pdf Accessed: September 9, 2012. Sandelowski, and Barroso. (2002). Finding the Findings in Qualitative Studies. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 34, (3), 213-220. |
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